Due to technical limitations of the AnyLogic student license, the simulation was executed over a two-week period for each scenario. However, the reduced time horizon of the model does not compromise the robustness or validity of the study. This is because the modelling approach uses input parameters derived from the median of historical data series, capturing long-term patterns and stable operational behavior while abstracting short-term fluctuations and seasonal variations.
Maritime supply chain and hinterland infrastructure
The maritime supply chain is considered an essential component of international trade and can be defined as a service-oriented supply chain in which cargo logistics constitutes its core activity (Xu et al. 2023). It involves the integration of various on-land infrastructures and multiple agents associated with production, logistics, and transportation activities organized around a port system and sea going vessels. This integration results in a structure that is often significantly more complex than traditional manufacturing supply chains (Xu et al. 2023; Démare 2017; Herz and Flämig 2014; Baalen et al. 2008; Bezerra et al. 2022).
Key stakeholders in the maritime supply chain include shipping lines, exporters, freight forwarders, Non-Vessel Operating Common Carriers (NVOCCs), trading companies, transport companies (covering road, rail, and waterways), port authorities, logistics service providers, regulatory bodies, and importers. The on-land infrastructure supporting these actors’ operations varies by region but typically includes warehouses, distribution centers, multimodal terminals, logistics hubs, depots, port terminals, and the broader transportation network (Démare 2017; Benedecti et al. 2024; Xu et al. 2023; Baalen et al. 2008).
Figure 6 illustrates the coordination of cargo flow across on-land infrastructures within a port’s hinterland for container, including the export and import flows. The numbered elements in the diagram represent the following actors and facilities: shipping lines (1), terminal operators (2), logistics service providers (3), depots (4), inland container terminals (ICT) (5), importers (6), and exporters (7) (Benedecti et al. 2024).
The cargo flow depicted in Fig. 6 typically begins with legal procedures governing the international transaction between importer and exporter. This contractual arrangement may occur directly between the two parties or may involve intermediaries such as freight forwarders, trading companies and shipping lines (Benedecti et al. 2024). Shipping lines own or lease vessels to carry the cargo from port to port. Shipping lines have fixed routes and schedules, which can be arranged with a NVOCC or with the Shipping Line directly. Logistics service providers offer integrated solutions for transportation, consolidation, stuffing, and unloading of cargo through a network of firms that operate in the port’s hinterland. These firms utilize physical infrastructures — including warehouses, depots, and logistics centers — which serve as the operational backbone of the maritime supply chain in the inland region (Démare 2017; Benedecti et al. 2024).
Seaport terminals play a central role in connecting sea and land transportation and are fundamental to the functioning of global trade (Xu et al. 2021; Wawrzyniak et al. 2024). Landside transportation integrates logistics activities between the port and its hinterland, and depending on regional infrastructure, it can involve multiple transport modes and intermodal solutions (Démare 2017; Janotti et al. 2012).
Regulatory authorities oversee all transport modes and are involved throughout the logistics process, ensuring compliance with national and international norms. Additionally, port authorities and government entities supervise the operational and administrative activities within terminal areas (Silva 2021). However, the absence of a single centralized authority governing the entire logistics chain often results in decentralized management. Consequently, stakeholders must collaborate and maintain close coordination to create coherent flows that respond to product-specific and territorial constraints, relying on the capacity of the existing infrastructure to meet customer demands (Démare 2017).
Given the interdependencies across the system, Herz and Flämig (2014) argue that competition no longer exists between individual ports but rather between entire logistics chains. Success is increasingly defined by how effectively a port’s logistics chain can meet the service requirements of both importing and exporting clients.
Truck parking facilities
Efficient management of truck flows is fundamental to mitigating congestion on road networks and ensuring the smooth operation of port logistics (Raju et al. 2022). One widely adopted strategy to address this challenge is the implementation of centralized truck parking facilities, which serve as buffer zones between ports and urban areas. These facilities are designed to manage the arrival of heavy vehicles, preventing the excessive accumulation of trucks at terminal gates and reducing unnecessary circulation between ports and nearby logistics structures (Yildirim et al. 2022).
Beyond managing access to port terminals, truck parking facilities play a significant role in enhancing terminal performance. By regulating truck inflows, they can improve berth utilization, increase cargo handling capacity, and reduce delays in the logistics chain. Moreover, these facilities help to decrease the presence of heavy vehicles within surrounding urban areas, contributing to improved traffic conditions and lower environmental impacts (Willrodt et al. 2024; Yildirim et al. 2022).
For truck parking areas to be effective, strategic planning is essential. According to Raju et al. (2022), this process should involve detailed analyses of current and projected demand, arrival and dwell patterns, vehicle characteristics, and spatial availability. Such planning ensures that the infrastructure is aligned with the operational dynamics of the terminal and can adapt to peak demand periods without compromising logistics efficiency.
In addition to operational benefits, truck parking facilities are also important for road safety. A special report by the United States National Transportation Safety Board (NTBS 2000) established a strong correlation between driver fatigue and the occurrence of road accidents. This highlights the need for appropriate rest areas tailored to the specific requirements of truck drivers. Unlike conventional rest stops or hotels, truck parking facilities must accommodate long vehicles, ensure cargo security, and operate with flexible schedules to account for variability in logistics operations (NTBS 2000; European Union 2000).
Internationally, truck parking facilities have become standard in major seaports as part of broader strategies to enhance cargo transport efficiency and sustainability. Ports in Brazil, Germany, China, Belgium, and the Netherlands offer infrastructure that includes restrooms, changing areas, restaurants, emergency medical support, internet access, secure parking zones, service stations, and 24-hour operations (Yildirim et al. 2022; Brazil 2013; Brazil 2023; Port of Rotterdam 2024; Port of Antwerp Bruges 2025). These facilities not only improve truck drivers’ life quality but also reinforce the overall reliability of logistics operations.
Simulation
Simulation is a computational technique that enables the abstraction and modeling of real-world systems, allowing for the exploration of their behavior under different conditions (Grigoryev 2015). It is particularly useful for analyzing complex systems where multiple variables interact dynamically, offering decision-makers valuable insights through the testing of scenarios and the assessment of potential outcomes.
Simulation approaches can be broadly categorized into discrete-event simulation, system dynamics, and agent-based simulation (ABS), each distinguished by its modeling structure and level of abstraction. ABS is especially flexible, as it enables the representation of systems at various levels of detail, even combining elements with differing degrees of abstraction within a single framework (Borshchev 2015; Grigoryev 2015). Due to its capacity to model autonomous entities — referred to as agents — and their interactions, ABS is increasingly adopted to address complex, decentralized, and large-scale logistics problems (Garro et al. 2015; Yildirim et al. 2022).
In the maritime logistics context, simulation has been employed to evaluate a variety of congestion management strategies and infrastructure configurations. Ben and Daya (2024), for instance, used queuing theory and discrete-event simulation to assess the impact of different numbers of gates on operational fluidity. Raju et al. (2022) and Yildirim (2022) applied microsimulation and ABS to determine the optimal design and capacity of truck parking facilities in Indian and Turkish ports, respectively. Similarly, Preston et al. (2012) and Xu et al. (2019) simulated the effects of parking infrastructure on local road traffic and terminal access conditions.
One widely discussed solution for seaport congestion is the implementation of truck scheduling systems, often assessed through simulation models. Studies by Wang et al. (2022), Da Silva et al. (2023, 2024), Nadi et al. (2022), and Xu et al. (2022) investigated how appointment systems affect truck waiting times and overall logistics efficiency. Another strategy involves the establishment of inland terminals to divert flows from congested port areas. Several authors have explored this solution using simulation techniques, including Dias et al. (2019), Abourraja et al. (2018), Alias (2023), Horvat (2010), Göbel et al. (2007), and Kawasaki et al. (2023). In a previous work, the authors of this study also examined the benefits of integrating a multimodal inland terminal to serve flows between Itapoá Port and the city of Joinville (Benedecti et al. 2024). Dumetz et al. (2024) describe a transportation simulation model that integrates detailed topographical and geometrical constraints. It assesses different container logistics scenarios — such as road design variations and truck fleet sizes — to optimize productivity.
Despite several papers focused on truck parking facilities to manage truck operations around ports or logistics hubs, it is worthwhile mentioning the use of Truck Guidance System (TGS) to coordinate and guide truck traffic. Although the two approaches are both related, they serve different roles: TGS is a digital system to coordinate truck traffic using real-time data, optimizing when and how the trucks move to/from port terminals, truck parking facilities are physical spaces where trucks can wait before entering the terminal (Carlan et al. 2019).
More recently, simulation has been used to evaluate technological innovations such as blockchain-based coordination systems. Mhiri et al. (2024), for example, proposed a simulation model for optimizing hinterland container flows using a distributed ledger framework.
In contrast to the aforementioned studies, the present research employs ABS specifically to analyze the effects of introducing a truck parking facility in the hinterland of Itapoá Port. This technique was chosen for its ability to decompose a complex logistics system into coordinated subcomponents — such as trucks, depots, terminals, and urban roads — modeled as interacting agents. The use of ABS allows for the representation of individual behaviors, decision rules, and operational dynamics, enabling a more detailed and realistic simulation of port-related logistics chains and their performance under alternative infrastructure configurations.
