Consider offering affordable access to lesser developed countries: European companies are already competing with SpaceSail across markets from Central Asia to Latin America. European governments should consider ways to embed satellite internet within the EU’s connectivity partnerships.
1 | Ogryzko, Lesia and Alberto Rizzi (2025). “Shallow seas and “shadow fleets”: Europe’s undersea infrastructure is dangerously vulnerable.” ECFR. April 8. https://ecfr.eu/article/shallow-seas-and-shadow-fleets-europes-undersea-infrastructure-is-dangerously-vulnerable/. Accessed: 28.10.2025; Ewe, Koh and I-ting Chiang (2025). “Taiwan jails China captain for undersea cable sabotage in landmark case.” BBC. June 12. https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cwy3zy9jvd4o. Accessed: 28.10.2025.
2 | Balmforth, Tom (2025). “Musk ordered shutdown of Starlink satellite service as Ukraine retook territory from Russia.” Reuters. July 25. https://www.reuters.com/investigations/musk-ordered-shutdown-starlink-satellite-service-ukraine-retook-territory-russia-2025-07-25/. Accessed: 28.10.2025.
3 | International Cooperation Center 国际合作中心 (2023). “”星链”军事化发展及其对全球战略稳定性的影响” (The Militarization of Starlink and Its Impact on Global Strategic Stability). September 24. https://web.archive.org/web/20250412021224/https://www.icc.org.cn/strategicresearch/laboratory/internationalsecurity/xgwz/1954.html. Accessed: 28.10.2025; Wang, Howard, Jackson Smith and Cristina L. Garafola (2025). “Chinese Military Views of Low Earth Orbit – Proliferation, Starlink, and Desired Countermeasures.” RAND. March 24. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA3139-1.html. Accessed: 28.10.2025.
4 |Forrester, Chris (2026). “Starlink exceeds 9.2m customers.” Advanced Television. January 5. https://www.advanced-television.com/2026/01/05/starlink-exceeds-9-2m-customers/. Accessed: 06.01.2026.
5 | Davidson, Helen (2024). “Taiwan to have satellite internet service as protection in case of Chinese attack.” The Guardian. October 15. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/oct/15/taiwan-to-have-satellite-internet-service-as-protection-in-case-of-chinese-attack. Accessed: 28.10.2025; Wang, Joyu, Micah Maidenberg and Yang Jie (2024). “Taiwan’s Race for Secure Internet Detours Around Musk’s Starlink.” The Wall Street Journal. October 30. https://www.wsj.com/tech/taiwans-race-for-secure-internet-detours-around-musks-starlink-7c273912. Accessed: 28.10.2025.
6 | Hille, Kathrin (2024). “Taiwan in talks with Amazon’s Kuiper on satellite communications amid China fears.” Financial Times. December 17. https://www.ft.com/content/cbbcf94b-d326-4edd-b926-8a91d5297df8. Accessed: 28.10.2025.
7 | Chi, Ma. China Daily (2017). “China aims to be world-leading space power by 2045.” November 17. https://web.archive.org/web/20230328123304/https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2017-11/17/content_34653486.htm. Accessed: 28.10.2025.
8 | National Development and Reform Commission 发改委 (2016). “中华人民共和国国民经济和社会发展第十三个五年规划纲要” (Outline of the 13th Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development of the People’s Republic of China). https://web.archive.org/web/20220131142913/https://www.ndrc.gov.cn/xxgk/zcfb/ghwb/201603/P020190905497807636210.pdf. Accessed: 03.11.2025.
9 | Ibid.
10 | Huaxin Consulting 华信咨询 (2021). “头条看点丨空天地一体化信息网络真的要来了吗?” (Headline Highlights | Is an Integrated Space-Air-Ground Information Network Really Coming?). Retrieved via WeChat. June 25. https://archive.ph/vFVSy. Accessed: 11.11.2026.
11 | Xu, Xiaofan 徐晓帆, Niwei Wang王妮炜, Yingyuan Gao 高璎园 et al. (2021). “陆海空天一体化信息网络发展研” Development of Land-Sea-Air-Space Integrated Information Network.” Strategic Studies of CAE 23(2): 39-45. May 14. https://doi.org/10.15302/J-SSCAE-2021.02.006. Accessed: 03.11.2025.
12 | Ibid.
13 | Nanping Yu 余南平and Jiajie Yan 严佳杰 (2024). “国际和国家安全视角下的美国”星链”计划及其影响” (The U.S. Starlink Project and Its Implications from the Perspective of International and National Security). Journal of International Security Studies. Retrieved from China Institute of Command and Control. September 14. https://archive.ph/p7rbV. Accessed: 11.11.2025.
14 | China’s State Council (2015). “China’s Military Strategy.” May 27. https://web.archive.org/web/20251023035037/https://english.www.gov.cn/archive/white_paper/2015/05/27/content_281475115610833.htm. Accessed: 28.10.2025.
15 | Wang, Howard, Jackson Smith and Cristin L. Garafola (2025). “Chinese Military Views of Low Earth Orbit – Proliferation, Starlink, and Desired Countermeasures.” RAND. March 24. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA3139-1.html. Accessed: 28.10.2025.
16 | Nanping Yu 余南平and Jiajie Yan 严佳杰 (2024). “国际和国家安全视角下的美国”星链”计划及其影响” (The U.S. Starlink Project and Its Implications from the Perspective of International and National Security). Journal of International Security Studies. Retrieved from China Institute of Command and Control. September 14. https://archive.ph/p7rbV. Accessed: 11.11.2025.
17 | Burke, Kristin (2023). “PLA Counterspace Command and Control.” CASI. https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Portals/10/CASI/documents/Research/PLASSF/2023-12-11Counterspace-webversion.pdf. Accessed: 28.10.2025.
18 | Julienne, Marc (2023). “China in the Race to Low Earth Orbit: Perspectives on the Future Internet Constellation Guowang.” Ifri. April 27. https://www.ifri.org/en/papers/china-race-low-earth-orbit-perspectives-future-internet-constellation-guowang. Accessed: 11.11.2025; Wang, Howard, Jackson Smith and Cristin L. Garafola (2025). “Chinese Military Views of Low Earth Orbit – Proliferation, Starlink, and Desired Countermeasures.” RAND. March 24. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA3139-1.html. Accessed: 28.10.2025.
19 | Cheng, Dean (2021). “Space and Chinese National Security: China’s Continuing Great Leap Upward.” In: Wuthnow, Joel et al. The PLA beyond borders. Chinese Military Operations in Regional and Global Context, pp. 311-330. Washington, D.C.: National Defense University Press. https://ndupress.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/Books/beyond-borders/990-059-NDU-PLA_Beyond_Borders_sp_jm14.pdf. Accessed: 11.11.2025.
20 | Huaxia 华夏 (2021). “十四五”期间我国将加快布局卫星通信” (During the 14th Five-Year Plan period, China will accelerate the deployment of satellite communications). November 22. https://web.archive.org/web/20250812124147/https:/www.huaxia.com/c/2021/11/22/888353.shtml. Accessed: 11.11.2025.
21 | Zhihu 知乎 (2025). “长征六号甲年度第5飞为中国星网再添5星！” (The fifth Long March 6A launch of the year adds five more satellites to China’s satellite network!). July 30. https://archive.ph/L0qjx. Accessed: 11.11. 2025.
22 | Sina 新浪 (2024). “独家：我国首颗正式卫星互联网高轨卫星！这才是重大看点！” (Exclusive: China’s First Official Satellite Internet Geostationary Orbit Satellite! This Is the Real Highlight!). March 1. https://archive.ph/zFMz1. Accessed: 11.11.2025; China Satellite Communications Co. 中国卫通集团股份有限公司 (2025). “中星10R成功发射！我国高轨卫星通信能力持续增强” (Zhongxing-10R successfully launched! China’s high-orbit satellite communication capabilities continue to strengthen). https://archive.ph/kDTmJ. Accessed: 11.11.2025; Ma, Shuaisha马帅莎 (2025). “中国成功发射中星10R卫星助力共建”一带一路”” (China successfully launches Zhongxing-10R satellite to support the Belt and Road Initiative). Ifeng. February 23. https://web.archive.org/web/20260114185539/https://i.ifeng.com/c/8hBU3UCfXwh. Accessed: 11.11.2025.
23 | Tsinghua University 清华大学 (2024). “智慧天网一号01星成功发射!” (Sky Net-1 Satellite 01 Successfully Launched!). May 9. https://archive.ph/U8PJL. Accessed: 11.11.2025.
24 | People’s Daily Online (2025). “Chinese space firm deploys IoT satellite constellation for global coverage.” September 25. https://web.archive.org/web/20250925092113/https://en.people.cn/n3/2025/0925/c90000-20370916.html . Accessed: 28.10.2025.
25 | Ibid.
26 | Xinhua 新华 (2021). “卫星互联网：高科技领域的低成本挑战” (Satellite Internet: The Low-Cost Challenge in a High-Tech Field). July 19. https://web.archive.org/web/20240310013510/https://www.xinhuanet.com/tech/20210719/da3c70bfbffe46758a1672659fb5ec5e/c.html. Accessed: 11.11.2025.
27 | Smid, Henk (2022). “An analysis of Chinese remote sensing satellites.” The Space Review. https://www.thespacereview.com/article/4453/1. Accessed: 11.11.2025; U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission (2025). “Hearing on the Rocket’s Red Glare: China’s Ambitions to Dominate Space.” April 3. https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/2025-04/April_3_2025_Hearing_Transcript.pdf. Accessed: 11.11.2025.
28 | Hitchens, Theresa (2023). “At UN meeting, space cooperation picks up momentum, but Moscow and Beijing play spoilers.” Breaking Defense. February 3. https://breakingdefense.com/2023/02/at-un-meeting-space-cooperation-picks-up-momentum-but-moscow-and-beijing-play-spoilers. Accessed: 11.11.2025; South China Morning Post (2026). “China warns satellites from Elon Musk’s Starlink are ‘safety and security’ risk.” January 1. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3338409/china-warns-satellites-elon-musks-starlink-are-safety-and-security-risk. Accessed: 14.01.2026.
29 | UN General Assembly (2021). “Information furnished in conformity with the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies.” December 6. https://www.unoosa.org/res/oosadoc/data/documents/2021/aac_105/aac_1051262_0_html/AAC105_1262E.pdf. Accessed: 11.11.2025; Ministry of Foreign Affairs China (2022). “Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Zhao Lijian’s Regular Press Conference on February 10, 2022.” February 10. https://web.archive.org/web/20260114193633/https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/xw/fyrbt/lxjzh/202405/t20240530_11347221.html. Accessed: 11.11.2025.
30 | MIIT 工信部 (2025). “工业和信息化部关于优化业务准入促进卫星通信产业发展的指导意见” (Guiding Opinions of the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology on Optimizing Business Access to Promote the Development of the Satellite Communications Industry). August 27. https://archive.ph/9u2sq; China Baogao 报告大厅 (2025). “2025年中国卫星通信市场新纪元：互联网融合与千万级用户目标达成路径解析.” August 28. https://archive.ph/IMENH. Accessed: 28.10.2025; Business Insider (2025). “Elon Musk’s Starlink is adding 20,000 new users a day as it hits 9 million customers.” https://www.businessinsider.com/spacex-starlink-customer-numbers-surge-9-million-elon-musk-ipo-2025-12. Accessed: 11.01.2026.
31 | Innovation Academy for Microsatellites of Chinese Academy of Sciences 中国科学院微小卫星创新研究院. https://archive.is/yqZ8q. Accessed: 11.11.2025.
32 | ST Daily 中国科技网 (2024). “我国首次！星地100千兆比特每秒激光通信试验完成” (My country’s first-ever 100 gigabits-per-second laser communication experiment between space and ground completed!) December 28. https://web.archive.org/web/20250102185514/https://www.stdaily.com/web/gdxw/2024-12/28/content_280059.html. Accessed: 28.10.2025; Sina 新浪 (2025). “速率提升75%！我国高阶体制高码率星地通信地面技术实验成功” (A 75% increase in speed! my country successfully conducts high-speed, high-bit-rate satellite-to-ground communication terrestrial technology experiment). May 26. https://web.archive.org/web/20260114201409/https://finance.sina.com.cn/tech/roll/2025-05-26/doc-inexwxma9771530.shtml. Accessed: 28.10.2025.
33 | Boyd, Henry, Erik Green and Meia Nouwens (2025). “Space: China’s TT&C capabilities and space diplomacy.” IISS. July 17. https://www.iiss.org/charting-china/2025/07/space-chinas-ttc-capabilities-and-space-diplomacy/. Accessed: 28.10.2025.
34 | China National Space Administration 国家航天局 (2015). “2015年10月29日《国家民用空间基础设施中长期发展规划(2015-2025年)》正式发布” (On October 29, 2015, the “National Civil Space Infrastructure Medium and Long-Term Development Plan (2015-2025)” was officially released). October 29. https://web.archive.org/web/20250925010531/https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6758968/n6758972/c6797602/content.html. Accessed: 28.10.2025; State Council 国务院 (2014). “国务院关于创新重点领域投融资机制鼓励社会投资的指导意见” (The State Council’s Guiding Opinions on Innovating Investment and Financing Mechanisms in Key Areas and Encouraging Social Investment). https://web.archive.org/web/20250901173805/https://www.gov.cn/gongbao/content/2014/content_2786819.htm. Accessed: 28.10.2025.
35 | FuturePhecda 未来天玑 (2025). “全球及中国卫星行业：发展概况、产业链关键环节与未来转型方向” (Global and China’s Satellite Industry: Development Overview, Key Segments of the Industrial Chain, and Future Directions). September, 26. https://web.archive.org/web/20260115093336/https://www.futurephecda.com/news/19737. Accessed: 28.10.2025.
36 | Reuters (2019). “China to announce rules soon to regulate commercial rocket industry.” April 23. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-space-regulations/china-to-announce-rules-soon-to-regulate-commercial-rocket-industry-idUSKCN1RZ0UN. Accessed: 28.10.2025; Xinhua (2025). “China’s commercial space sector strives to reach new heights.” June 20. https://web.archive.org/web/20260115094220/https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202506/1336571.shtml?utm_source=ts2.tech. Accessed: 28.10.2025; State Council (2025). “China’s space authority sets up new department to oversee commercial space sector.” November 30. https://web.archive.org/web/20260115095243/https://english.www.gov.cn/news/202511/30/content_WS692b9763c6d00ca5f9a07da0.html. Accessed: 14.01.2026; State Council (2025). “China’s space authority sets up new department to oversee commercial space sector.” November 30. https://web.archive.org/web/20260115095243/https://english.www.gov.cn/news/202511/30/content_WS692b9763c6d00ca5f9a07da0.html. Accessed: 14.01.2026.
37 | State Council (2025). “China’s space agency unveils plan to boost commercial growth, international cooperation.” November 26. https://archive.ph/vl2xm. Accessed: 14.01.2026; China National Space Administration 国家航天局 (2025). “关于印发《国家航天局推进商业航天高质量安全发展行动计划（2025 — 2027年）》的通知” (Notice on Issuing the “Action Plan of China National Space Administration for Promoting High-Quality and Safe Development of Commercial Spaceflight (2025-2027)”). November 25. https://web.archive.org/web/20251204001357/https://www.cnsa.gov.cn/n6758823/n6758839/c10719382/content.html. Accessed: 14.01.2025; MIIT 工信部 (2025). “工业和信息化部关于优化业务准入促进卫星通信产业发展的指导意见” (Guiding Opinions of the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology on Optimizing Business Access to Promote the Development of the Satellite Communications Industry.) August, 27. https://archive.ph/9u2sq. Accessed: 28.10.2025; STCN 每日经济新闻 (2024). “《国家民用空间基础设施中长期发展规划（2026-2035）》正在编制” (The National Medium- and Long-Term Development Plan for Civil Space Infrastructure (2026-2035) is under development). November 11. https://web.archive.org/web/20241111071550/https://stcn.com/article/detail/1407521.html. Accessed: 28.10.2025.
38 | Space Mapper 太空地图 (2025). “Qianfan.” https://archive.ph/HI9kc. Accessed: 14.01.2026; CWW (2025). “垣信卫星13.36亿元招标，民营火箭将成”核心玩家”？” (Yuanxin Satellite’s 1.336 billion-yuan tender: Will private rocket companies become “core players” ?) July 28. https://archive.ph/9wKCn. Accessed: 11.11.2025.
39 | In this report we spell out the original Chinese-language name of the main space companies we mention unless their international name is widely known outside China.
40 | Space Mapper 太空地图 (2025). “Guowang.” https://archive.ph/QMgk8. Accessed: 14.01.2026; IT Times IT时报 (2025). “独家：我国卫星互联网牌照发放倒计时，追赶马斯克星链” (Exclusive: China’s Satellite Internet License Issuance Countdown Begins, Racing to Catch Up with Musk’s Starlink). August 25. https://archive.ph/dw3vU. Accessed: 11.11.2025.
41 | ST Daily 中国科技网 (2025). “长征十二号火箭成功发射卫星互联网低轨卫星” (Long March 12 Rocket Successfully Launches Satellite Internet Low-Earth Orbit Satellites.) August 4. https://www.stdaily.com/web/gdxw/2025-08/04/content_380284.html. Accessed: 28.10.2025.
42 | State Council (2024). “China’s new mega-constellation marks milestone in satellite internet.” August 9. https://web.archive.org/web/20241216132922/https://english.www.gov.cn/news/202408/09/content_WS66b55ad9c6d0868f4e8e9cf8.html. Accessed: 28.10.2025; Geely (2024). “Geely Future Mobility Satellite Constellation Nears Halfway Mark With Most Recent Global Service Launch.” September 6. https://web.archive.org/web/20251111080431/https://zgh.com/media-center/news/2024-09-06/?lang=en. Accessed: 28.10.2025.
43 | Space Mapper 太空地图 (2025). “Tianqi.” https://archive.ph/SkJxo. Accessed: 14.01.2026; Wang, Huabing 王华炳(2025). “基础化工周报：关注商业航天相关化工材料投资机遇” (Weekly Report: Focusing on Investment Opportunities in Chemical Materials Related to Commercial Aerospace). State Investment Securities via Sina. December 21. https://web.archive.org/web/20260115111322/https://stock.finance.sina.com.cn/stock/view/paper.php?symbol=sh000001&reportid=819638610124. Accessed: 14.01.2026.
44 | Curcio, Blaine (2025). “Chinese Space Financing Goes Mainstream.” China Space Monitor. October 20. https://chinaspacemonitor.substack.com/p/chinese-space-financing-goes-mainstream. Accessed: 11.11.2025.
45 | ITjuzi IT橘子. https://www.itjuzi.com/. Accessed: 11.11.2025.
46 | ITjuzi IT橘子. https://www.itjuzi.com/. Accessed: 11.11.2025. Similar findings have been reported by the Space Ambition Research Center (2025). “China: Private Space Ecosystem of the Rising Superpower.” https://spaceambition.substack.com/p/china-private-space-ecosystem-of. Accessed: 11.11.2025.
47 | Ibid.
48 | Shijia, Ouyang, et al. (2025). “Fresh measures set to help create new growth drivers.” China Daily. March 7. https://web.archive.org/web/20250403233115/https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202503/07/WS67c9d1a4a310c240449d9282.html. Accessed: 11.11.2025.
49 | Shanghai Observer 上观新闻 (2025). “上海银行助跑”中国版SpaceX” 打造商业航天新生态” (Shanghai Bank Propels “China’s SpaceX” to Build New Commercial Space Ecosystem). February 25. https://archive.ph/0GXYc. Accessed: 11.11.2025; Zheshang Bank浙商银行 (2025). “浙商银行助力中国商业航天追赶Space X！” (Zhejiang Commercial Bank Empowers China’s Commercial Space Industry to Catch Up with SpaceX!) Weixin. March 5. https://archive.ph/wAgrI. Accessed:11.11.2025.
50 | Hainan International Commercial Aerospace Launch Co. 海南国际商业航天发射有限公司 (2025). “风云星闻｜海南商业航天发射场二期项目今日开工” (Phase II of Hainan Commercial Space Launch Site Project Commences Construction Today). Weixin. January 25. https://archive.ph/z0W2G. Accessed: 11.11.2025.
51 | Sohu 搜狐 (2025). “两会·新质观察团｜商业航天”造星”拼出千亿产业集” (Commercial Space Industry’s “Star-Making” Efforts Forge a Hundred-Billion-Yuan Industrial Cluster). January 16. https://archive.ph/VBzEM. Accessed: 11.11.2025.
52 | Xu, Xiaofei and Frank Chen (2025). “Shanghai launches plan to lead development of China’s commercial space sector.” SCMP. April 28. https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3307880/shanghai-launches-plan-lead-development-chinas-commercial-space-sector. Accessed: 28.10.2025.
53 | 21st Century Business Herald 21世纪经济报道 (2024). “上海卫星企业获67亿元A轮融资：行业利好政策频出，盈利预期仍不乐观” (Shanghai-based satellite company secures 6.7 billion yuan in Series A funding: Despite frequent favourable industry policies, profit expectations remain pessimistic). February 2. https://archive.ph/6z6Ye. Accessed: 11.11.2025.
54 | ITjuzi IT橘子. https://www.itjuzi.com/. Accessed: 11.11.2025; STCN 每日经济新闻 (2025). “头部火箭公司星际荣耀再获7亿融资，此前披露IPO辅导工作进展”( Leading rocket company iSpace has secured another 700 million yuan in funding, following its previous disclosure of progress in IPO preparation). September 19. https://archive.ph/PMsUK. Accessed: 14.01.2026.
55 | Yicai 第一财经 (2025). “25天9次发射！ “中国版星链”冲刺期有烦恼” (25 days, 9 launches! China’s Starlink equivalent faces challenges during its sprint phase). August 22. https://archive.ph/DPk4U. Accessed: 11.11.2025.
56 | Ibid; Guosen Securities 国信通信 (2025) “国信通信·卫星互联网专题四. 民营火箭亟待突破，手机直连与激光通信未来可期” (Guosen Communications · Satellite internet special topic 4: Private rockets urgently need breakthroughs; Direct-to-Cell and laser communications show great future promise). July 14. https://web.archive.org/web/20250826134514/https://pdf.dfcfw.com/pdf/H3_AP202507141708784950_1.pdf?1752515352000.pdf. Accessed: 11.11.2025; STCN 每日经济新闻 (2023). “那个烧钱炸火箭的Space X，终于赚钱了” (SpaceX, the company that burned through money to blow up rockets, has finally made a profit). https://archive.ph/XoTrl. Accessed: 28.10.2025.
57 | Beijing Government 北京政府 (2025). “多款可重复使用火箭2025年将首飞北京打开万亿级低轨经济”太空入口”” (Several reusable rockets are scheduled for their maiden flights in 2025, opening a “space gateway” to a trillion-yuan-level low-Earth orbit economy for Beijing). June,19. https://archive.ph/xv1lY. Accessed: 11.11.2025; Mingyang, Tao. Global Times (2025) “China’s private space firm Galactic Energy completes reusable rocket test for forming satellite constellations.” https://archive.ph/b46su. Accessed: 11.11.2025; JF Daily 上观新闻 (2025). “在可重复使用火箭探索之路上，朱雀三号和长征十二号甲都值得点赞” (Both the Zhuque-3 and Long March 12A rockets deserve praise on the path of exploring reusable rockets). https://archive.ph/7zXSg. Accessed: 14.01.2026.
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