DRC Ceasefire Collapse; Turkish Troops to Niger; El Fasher on the Brink: Africa File, September 25, 2025

The Critical Threats Project’s Africa File provides regular analysis and assessments of major developments regarding state and nonstate actors’ activities in Africa that undermine regional stability and threaten US personnel and interests.

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[ii] https://information.tv5monde.com/afrique/video/rd-congo-ce-que-lon-sait-de-la-prise-de-nzibira-par-le-m23-2791786; https://x.com/TazamaRDC_Infos/status/1954812711289643331; ttps://x.com/RDC_Times/status/1970062517088170442; https://ipisresearch.be/wp-content/uploads/2023/12/20231205_IPIS-Gender-equality-in-ASM_accessible-PDF.pdf

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[iv] https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/congo-army-rebels-dig-war-trump-says-is-over-2025-09-18; https://x.com/LawrenceKanyuka/status/1967311327652913270; https://x.com/wembi_steve/status/1967320114203910238; https://kivumorningpost dot com/2025/09/15/rdc-lafc-m23-deploie-7-437-commandos-et-annonce-le-remplacement-des-fardc; https://x.com/kivunews24/status/1967468278403498353; https://apnews.com/article/congo-m23-rebels-rwanda-parade-peace-e9312a2261208eafff0432b7b4159db4; https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20250916-est-de-la-rdc-l-afc-m23-exhibe-un-nouveau-contingent-de-7-000-hommes-malgr-les-ngociations-en-cours–doha; https://x.com/KivuMorningPost/status/1968795249993461775; https://x.com/kivunews24/status/1968780581828755762; https://x.com/kivunews24/status/1968780581828755762; https://x.com/michombero/status/1968676080685883428

[v] https://x.com/RealManziWilly/status/1959699396603609494; https://kivumorningpost dot com/2025/08/25/rdc-deploiement-de-policiers-formes-par-lafc-m23-a-goma-et-bukavu; https://x.com/Kivuinfo24/status/1959675085759139844; https://x.com/HeritierBarak/status/1959898720301924413; https://x.com/KivuMorningPost/status/1959687462113984597; https://x.com/SimaroNgongoMba/status/1959678356238344457; https://x.com/wembi_steve/status/1958514309744447691; https://laprunellerdc dot cd/sud-kivu-deploiement-de-la-police-m23-a-bukavu-et-annonce-de-fermeture-du-poste-frontalier-de-ruzizi-1er-a-20-heures; https://x.com/StanysBujakera/status/1962988339197296961; https://x.com/wembi_steve/status/1963148683156840711; https://x.com/JTAtv5monde/status/1962981111903948816; https://x.com/wembi_steve/status/1962982622927454591; https://x.com/ProvSudKivu/status/1962964594365763873; https://x.com/ProvSudKivu/status/1962846436468404389; https://x.com/bwindja/status/1963166845818606000

[vi] https://kivumorningpost dot com/2025/08/25/rdc-deploiement-de-policiers-formes-par-lafc-m23-a-goma-et-bukavu; https://x.com/SimaroNgongoMba/status/1959678356238344457

[vii] https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/m23-violates-drc-ceasefire-mali-coup-el-fasher-assault-russian-migration-manipulation-libya-nigerien-militia-mobilization-africa-file-august-14-2025#DRC; https://www.radiookapi dot net/2025/09/22/actualite/securite/le-m23-sempare-de-la-cite-de-nzibira-apres-dintenses-combats-contre

[viii] https://www.radiookapi dot net/2025/01/29/actualite/securite/le-general-major-evariste-somo-kakule-nomme-gouverneur-militaire-du; https://www.radiookapi dot net/2024/12/04/actualite/societe/patrick-muyaya-salue-lappui-financier-de-lue-la-31e-brigade-des-fardc; https://www.africaintelligence.com/central-africa/2025/06/19/more-emirati-armoured-vehicles-arrive-to-bulk-up-army,110466852-art

[ix] https://www.radiookapi dot net/2025/09/22/actualite/securite/le-m23-sempare-de-la-cite-de-nzibira-apres-dintenses-combats-contre

[x] https://actualite dot cd/2025/08/25/sud-kivu-nouveau-front-ouvert-par-les-rebelles-de-lafcm23-nyamaramara-dans-le-mwenga

[xi] https://www.sosmediasburundi dot org/2025/07/13/sud-kivu-kinshasa-accuse-le-m23-de-preparer-une-offensive-sur-uvira-des-autorites-locales-se-replient-chaque-soir-a-bujumbura/?tztc=1; https://x.com/TheGreatLakesE1/status/1960601045417037914; https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20250821-est-de-la-rdc-de-nouveaux-combats-dans-le-nord-kivu-et-le-sud-kivu-malgr-le-cessez-le-feu; https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20250825-rdc-de-violents-combats-ont-oppos-l-arme-congolaise–l-afc-m23-au-sud-kivu-durant-tout-le-week-end; https://kivutoday dot com/m23-captures-rubumba-eyes-uvira; https://actualite dot cd/2025/08/25/sud-kivu-nouveau-front-ouvert-par-les-rebelles-de-lafcm23-nyamaramara-dans-le-mwenga; https://actualite dot cd/2025/08/24/sud-kivu-deux-policiers-tues-dans-un-accrochage-avec-les-twirwaneho-mwenga; https://x.com/HeritierBarak/status/1959533795872239733; https://x.com/KivuMorningPost/status/1959292735233687965; https://x.com/michombero/status/1959963016989905336 https://x.com/HeritierBarak/status/1959912575434473779; https://x.com/TazamaFact/status/1959595677702373658

[xii] https://7sur7 dot cd/2025/08/27/sud-kivu-la-ville-duvira-nest-pas-encerclee-par-le-m23-gouvernement

[xiii] https://x.com/kivunews24/status/1959560480336294037; https://x.com/wembi_steve/status/1959490848212599292; https://x.com/Kivuinfo24/status/1959506086689427628

[xiv] https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/congo-army-rebels-dig-war-trump-says-is-over-2025-09-18

[xv] https://actualite dot cd/index.php/2025/09/08/walikale-des-affrontements-signales-entre-les-rebelles-de-lafcm23-et-les-wazalendo-pres; https://kivumorningpost dot com/2025/09/10/masisi-lafc-m23-prend-le-controle-de-trois-villages-de-bashali-mokoto; https://actualite dot cd/index.php/2025/09/10/masisi-le-village-de-bibwe-passe-sous-controle-des-rebelles-de-lafcm23; https://kivumorningpost dot com/2025/09/15/masisi-le-village-ronga-passe-sous-controle-de-lafc-m23; https://actualite dot cd/index.php/2025/09/14/masisi-deplacement-de-la-population-de-lukweti-suite-linstabilite-securitaire; https://actualite dot cd/index.php/2025/09/15/masisi-deux-villages-sous-le-feu-des-rebelles-de-lafcm23-et-les-wazalendo-ce-lundi; https://actualite dot cd/index.php/2025/09/15/walikale-psychose-et-panique-mutongo-pres-de-pinga-suite-larrivee-massive-des-deplaces; https://actualite dot cd/index.php/2025/09/15/masisi-les-villages-ndurumo-et-kinyaongo-passent-sous-controle-des-rebelles-de-lafcm23; https://kivumorningpost dot com/2025/09/15/masisi-le-village-ronga-passe-sous-controle-de-lafc-m23; https://actualite dot cd/index.php/2025/09/15/masisi-les-villages-ndurumo-et-kinyaongo-passent-sous-controle-des-rebelles-de-lafcm23; https://kivumorningpost dot com/2025/09/16/masisi-trois-autres-villages-passent-sous-controle-de-lafc-m23-a-kalungu; https://x.com/KivuMorningPost/status/1967987000968941900; https://kivumorningpost dot com/2025/09/23/masisi-violents-combats-entre-lafc-m23-et-les-wazalendo-a-nyabikere; https://www.radiookapi dot net/2025/09/23/actualite/securite/situation-securitaire-toujours-tendue-masisi-et-walikale-apres-de; https://x.com/mediacongo/status/1970511095195455664

[xvi] https://actualite dot cd/index.php/2025/09/14/masisi-deplacement-de-la-population-de-lukweti-suite-linstabilite-securitaire; https://actualite dot cd/index.php/2025/09/15/masisi-deux-villages-sous-le-feu-des-rebelles-de-lafcm23-et-les-wazalendo-ce-lundi; https://kivumorningpost dot com/2025/09/16/masisi-trois-autres-villages-passent-sous-controle-de-lafc-m23-a-kalungu; https://x.com/KivuMorningPost/status/1967987000968941900

[xvii] https://actualite dot cd/2025/09/19/masisi-laviation-des-fardc-pilonne-les-positions-des-rebelles-de-lafcm23-bibwe; https://x.com/LawrenceKanyuka/status/1969028487349428722; https://x.com/BenMbonimpa/status/1969033509567128008; https://actualite dot cd/2025/09/18/masisi-reprise-de-trafic-entre-nyabiondo-et-pinga-apres-la-prise-du-village-kinyaongo; https://actualite dot cd/2025/09/15/masisi-les-villages-ndurumo-et-kinyaongo-passent-sous-controle-des-rebelles-de-lafcm23; https://www.radiookapi dot net/2025/09/21/actualite/securite/les-fardc-pilonnent-les-positions-de-lafc-m23-masisi-et-walikale; https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20250922-rdc-reprise-des-hostilits-dans-une-cit-minire-du-sud-kivu-malgr-les-ngociations–doha

[xviii] https://actualite dot cd/2025/09/16/walikale-larmee-reprend-le-controle-du-village-de-katobi; https://x.com/michombero/status/1967907798227828861; https://actualite dot cd/2025/09/18/walikale-apres-katobi-les-rebelles-de-lafcm23-deloges-de-luola; https://actualite dot cd/2025/09/21/walikale-reprise-des-combats-katobi-ce-dimanche; https://actualite dot cd/2025/09/21/rdc-autour-de-pinga-affrontements-et-guerre-des-communiques-entre-fardc-et-lafcm23; https://actualite dot cd/2025/09/22/walikale-une-attaque-des-rebelles-de-lafcm23-repoussee-katobi; https://actualite dot cd/2025/09/22/walikale-nouveaux-combats-entre-les-rebelles-de-lafcm23-et-les-wazalendo-autour-de-mpety; https://x.com/TazamaRDC_Infos/status/1969699792684003493; https://x.com/michombero/status/1970151662162522527

[xix] https://actualite dot cd/2025/09/21/rdc-deux-autres-positions-des-rebelles-de-lafcm23-pilonnees-par-laviation-walikale-et; https://actualite dot cd/2025/09/21/rdc-autour-de-pinga-affrontements-et-guerre-des-communiques-entre-fardc-et-lafcm23; https://www.radiookapi dot net/2025/09/21/actualite/securite/les-fardc-pilonnent-les-positions-de-lafc-m23-masisi-et-walikale; https://www.radiookapi dot net/2025/09/22/actualite/securite/intensification-des-combats-entre-lafc-m23-et-les-fardc-masisi-et; https://x.com/kivunews24/status/1969464050233843933

[xx] https://actualite dot cd/index.php/2025/09/08/walikale-les-renforts-continus-des-rebelles-de-lafcm23-autour-de-pinga-inquietent; https://actualite dot cd/2025/09/17/walikale-de-nouveaux-renforts-de-lafcm23-arrivent-rusamambu-et-bukumbirwa; https://actualite dot cd/2025/09/22/walikale-lafcm23-se-renforce-davantage-buleusa-rusamambu-et-bukumbirwa

[xxi] https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/africa-file-november-7-2024-niamey-threatened-boko-haram-fallout-in-chad-m23-marches-on-eastern-drc-somalia-jubbaland-tensions#DRC; https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20241029-rdc-dans-le-nord-kivu-le-territoire-de-walikale-menac-par-l-avance-des-rebelles-du-m23; https://www.mediacongo dot net/article-actualite-143639_insecurite_a_l_est_du_pays_montee_des_tensions_entre_m23_et_fardc_dans_le_nord_kivu.html; https://actualite dot cd/2024/11/01/rdc-m23-pres-de-15-000-deplaces-installes-lhopital-general-de-pinga-vivent-dans-la; https://actualite dot cd/index.php/2024/11/03/rdc-m23-nos-vaillants-militaires-defendent-leurs-positions-en-empechant-la-prise-de-la; https://ipisresearch.be/publication/mapping-artisanal-mining-areas-mineral-supply-chains-eastern-drc/; https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2011/12/3/walikale-the-curse-of-el-dorado; https://x.com/wembi_steve/status/1851332380642206201; https://lepotentiel dot cd/2024/10/30/guerre-dagression-et-attaque-de-walikale-le-depute-michel-moto-denonce-la-violation-du-cessez-le-feu-par-le-rwanda-et-appelle-a-lunite-africaine; https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20241029-rdc-dans-le-nord-kivu-le-territoire-de-walikale-menac-par-l-avance-des-rebelles-du-m23

[xxii] https://reliefweb.int/report/democratic-republic-congo/dr-congo-alan-doss-visits-north-kivu-0; https://monuc.unmissions.org/en/alan-doss-visits-north-kivu; https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20200718-rdc-milice-ndc-r-livre-guerre-guidon-shimiray-Gilbert-Bwira-nord-kivu; https://www.aa dot com.tr/en/africa/m23-rebels-seize-town-in-eastern-democratic-republic-of-congo/3369622

[xxiii] https://x.com/LawrenceKanyuka/status/1946547313062584727

[xxiv] https://x.com/LawrenceKanyuka/status/1946547313062584727

[xxv] https://actualite dot cd/index.php/2025/09/08/walikale-les-renforts-continus-des-rebelles-de-lafcm23-autour-de-pinga-inquietent; https://actualite dot cd/index.php/2025/09/10/six-civils-tues-lors-de-deux-jours-daffrontements-entre-rebelles-de-lafcm23-et-wazalendo; https://actualite dot cd/index.php/2025/09/12/walikale-apres-deux-jours-dintenses-combats-autour-de-mpety-lafcm23-intensifie-ses; https://x.com/KivuMorningPost/status/1967987000968941900; https://actualite dot cd/2025/09/17/walikale-de-nouveaux-renforts-de-lafcm23-arrivent-rusamambu-et-bukumbirwa; https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/congo-army-rebels-dig-war-trump-says-is-over-2025-09-18; https://x.com/asaphlit/status/1969083896055652722; https://actualite dot cd/2025/09/18/walikale-apres-avoir-perdu-katobi-et-luola-les-rebelles-de-lafcm23-se-renforcent-mpety; https://actualite dot cd/2025/09/19/masisi-laviation-des-fardc-pilonne-les-positions-des-rebelles-de-lafcm23-bibwe; https://actualite dot cd/2025/09/21/walikale-reprise-des-combats-katobi-ce-dimanche; https://actualite dot cd/2025/09/21/rdc-autour-de-pinga-affrontements-et-guerre-des-communiques-entre-fardc-et-lafcm23; https://actualite dot cd/2025/09/22/walikale-lafcm23-se-renforce-davantage-buleusa-rusamambu-et-bukumbirwa; https://x.com/LawrenceKanyuka/status/1946547313062584727

[xxvi] https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/saf-gains-central-sudan-rsf-drone-strikes-drc-ethnic-violence-iscap-adf-onslaught-mali-blockade-al-shabaab-increases-pressure-central-somalia-africa-file-september-18-2025#DRC-M23

[xxvii] https://kivumorningpost dot com/2025/08/25/rdc-lafc-m23-accuse-kinshasa-de-nouvelles-attaques-contre-goma-et-ses-environs; https://x.com/wembi_steve/status/1958979195821805721; https://x.com/wembi_steve/status/1958978929101803846; https://kivumorningpost dot com/2025/09/02/goma-corneille-nangaa-accuse-felix-tshisekedi-de-bloquer-le-dialogue-et-de-violer-le-cessez-le-feu; https://actualite dot cd/index.php/2025/09/02/pourparlers-de-doha-non-liberation-des-prisonniers-violations-du-cessez-le-feu-lafcm23; https://actualite dot cd/index.php/2025/09/02/dialogue-national-et-inclusif-uniquement-sur-initiative-propre-du-chef-de-letat-sil

[xxviii] https://x.com/LawrenceKanyuka/status/1969028487349428722

[xxix] https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/congo-army-rebels-dig-war-trump-says-is-over-2025-09-18; https://www.cnn.com/2025/09/22/africa/dr-congo-rwanda-peace-deal-trump-fighting-intl-cmd; https://x.com/LarryMadowo/status/1970507041081889032

[xxx] https://x.com/FARDC_Info/status/1969697228705960254

[xxxi] https://x.com/FARDC_Info/status/1969180586347557353; https://x.com/FARDC_Info/status/1969697228705960254

[xxxii] https://actualite dot cd/index.php/2025/09/15/doha-le-cicr-recoit-officiellement-le-document-du-mecanisme-de-liberation-des-detenus; https://kivumorningpost.com/2025/09/16/rdc-le-cicr-pret-a-faciliter-la-liberation-des-prisonniers-entre-kinshasa-et-lafc-m23; https://x.com/wembi_steve/status/1967925093650092045; https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20250919-est-de-la-rdc-pourquoi-l-change-de-prisonniers-entre-kinshasa-et-le-groupe-afc-m23-bloque; https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20250922-rdc-fin-du-cinquime-round-des-ngociations–doha-aprs-un-mois-de-difficiles-discussions

[xxxiii] https://actualite dot cd/2025/09/18/mecanisme-dechange-des-prisonniers-entre-kinshasa-afcm23-nous-allons-nous-assurer-quon; https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20250919-est-de-la-rdc-pourquoi-l-change-de-prisonniers-entre-kinshasa-et-le-groupe-afc-m23-bloque

[xxxiv] https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20250922-rdc-fin-du-cinquime-round-des-ngociations–doha-aprs-un-mois-de-difficiles-discussions; https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/congo-army-rebels-dig-war-trump-says-is-over-2025-09-18

[xxxv] https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/turkey-train-niger-army-fight-militant-groups

[xxxvi] https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/sahel/turkey-sahel; https://issafrica.org/iss-today/west-africa-and-turkey-forge-new-security-relations; https://www.clingendael.org/publication/unravelling-turkish-involvement-sahel; https://foreignpolicy.com/2023/08/02/niger-coup-russia-wagner-china-france-turkey-uae; https://www.clingendael.org/publication/unravelling-turkish-involvement-sahel

[xxxvii] https://armstransfers.sipri.org/ArmsTransfer

[xxxviii] https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20220524-la-turquie-livre-six-drones-bayraktar-tb2-au-niger; https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cjer5ewr34jo; https://www.voanews.com/a/turkey-sends-syrian-mercenaries-to-niger-to-secure-strategic-interests-/7616771.html

[xxxix] https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/turkey-niger-agree-enhance-energy-defence-cooperation-2024-07-18

[xl] https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/turkey-train-niger-army-fight-militant-groups

[xli] https://adf-magazine dot com/2025/05/turkey-deploys-more-forces-to-help-in-al-shabaab-fight

[xlii] https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/turkey-somalia-signs-oil-gas-exploration-deal; https://africacenter.org/spotlight/gulf-state-actors-east-africa

[xliii] https://www.mei.edu/publications/turkeys-sahel-strategy; https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/sahel-turkiye/turkey-sahel; https://www.clingendael.org/publication/unravelling-turkish-involvement-sahel

[xliv] https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/sahel-turkiye/turkey-sahel; https://www.clingendael.org/publication/unravelling-turkish-involvement-sahel

[xlv] https://www.meforum.org/mef-online/turkish-intelligence-has-established-an-operations-hub-in-niger-to-project-power-across-africa

[xlvi] https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/sahel-turkiye/turkey-sahel; https://www.clingendael.org/publication/unravelling-turkish-involvement-sahel

[xlvii] https://www.mei.edu/publications/turkeys-sahel-strategy; https://www.meforum.org/mef-online/turkish-intelligence-has-established-an-operations-hub-in-niger-to-project-power-across-africa

[xlviii] https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/turkey-niger-agree-enhance-energy-defence-cooperation-2024-07-18; https://www.meforum.org/mef-online/turkish-intelligence-has-established-an-operations-hub-in-niger-to-project-power-across-africa

[xlix] https://lalternative dot info/2024/10/04/togo-attaque-djihadiste-a-fanworgou-des-soldats-turcs-parmi-les-victimes; https://x.com/casusbellii/status/1842980788389708045; https://x.com/fabsenbln/status/1842975234166784287; https://www.africaintelligence.com/west-africa/2024/07/17/lome-turns-to-turkish-instructors-and-paramount-for-military-support,110269163-eve; https://x.com/Africa_In_EN/status/1813469860220883031; https://x.com/Africa_In_FR/status/1813469766595547610; https://www.afrik dot com/attaque-djihadiste-a-kpendjal-des-engins-d-ebomaf-detruits-et-des-employes-tues

[l] https://www.crisisgroup.org/fr/africa/sahel/turkey-sahel; https://defence24.com/geopolitics/the-war-for-the-sahel-report; https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/turkey-niger-agree-enhance-energy-defence-cooperation-2024-07-18; https://www.theafricareport.com/375064/from-wagner-to-africa-corps-malis-leaders-play-russian-roulette; https://foreignpolicy.com/2024/12/19/russia-africa-mali-niger-syria-wagner-power-influence-geopolitics; https://www.military dot africa/2022/12/turkish-turac-completes-firearms-and-explosive-handling-training-to-malian-personnel

[li] https://www.crisisgroup.org/europe-central-asia/western-europemediterranean/turkiye/turkiyes-growing-drone-exports

[lii] https://www.crisisgroup.org/europe-central-asia/western-europemediterranean/turkiye/turkiyes-growing-drone-exports

[liii] https://www.crisisgroup.org/europe-central-asia/western-europemediterranean/turkiye/turkiyes-growing-drone-exports

[liv] https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20220524-la-turquie-livre-six-drones-bayraktar-tb2-au-niger; https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cjer5ewr34jo; https://www.voanews.com/a/turkey-sends-syrian-mercenaries-to-niger-to-secure-strategic-interests-/7616771.html

[lv] https://www.syriahr.com/en/324012

[lvi] https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cjer5ewr34jo; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5ntFZari2s0&feature=youtu.be

[lvii] https://defence24.com/geopolitics/the-war-for-the-sahel-report; https://youtu.be/5ntFZari2s0?si=4Z4KR8-M9XoGPPpo; https://x.com/QalaatM/status/1809901906573103486

[lviii] https://warontherocks.com/2021/10/making-sense-of-sadat-turkeys-private-military-company

[lix] https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/africasource/the-sahel-is-pivoting-toward-turkey-heres-what-that-means-for-washington

[lx] https://africacenter.org/spotlight/gulf-state-actors-east-africa; https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/africa-file-february-23-2024-hamas-and-iran-in-nigeria-turkey-capitalizes-on-horn-of-africa-tensions#Somalia; https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/halt-jihadist-advance-somalia-work-turkey-and-uae

[lxi] https://www.mei.edu/publications/turkeys-sahel-strategy

[lxii] https://www.mei.edu/publications/turkeys-sahel-strategy; https://www.clingendael.org/publication/unravelling-turkish-involvement-sahel; https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/sahel-turkiye/turkey-sahel

[lxiii] https://www.clingendael.org/publication/unravelling-turkish-involvement-sahel

[lxiv] https://www.clingendael.org/publication/unravelling-turkish-involvement-sahel; https://www.mei.edu/publications/building-africa-turkeys-third-way-chinas-shadow; https://arrestedlawyers.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/13126.pdf

[lxv] https://warontherocks.com/2021/10/making-sense-of-sadat-turkeys-private-military-company; https://nordicmonitor.com/2025/01/Erdoğans-son-in-law-buys-italian-aerospace-company-to-overcome-embargoes-and-restrictions

[lxvi] https://files-profile.medicine.yale.edu/documents/45e77af9-a3cb-4bae-9bc2-61efe1d1595f; https://x.com/ThomasVLinge/status/1968703987357471217; https://x.com/VistaMaps/status/1968709666310967707; https://www.darfur24 dot com/2025/09/18/—–/

[lxvii] https://files-profile.medicine.yale.edu/documents/45e77af9-a3cb-4bae-9bc2-61efe1d1595f; https://x.com/clashreport/status/1968738768145244283; https://www.facebook.com/share/v/1EXt7ERfTs/; https://x.com/VistaMaps/status/1969058530356269286; https://www.darfur24 dot com/2025/09/18/—–/

[lxviii] https://files-profile.medicine.yale.edu/documents/45e77af9-a3cb-4bae-9bc2-61efe1d1595f

[lxix] https://x.com/ThomasVLinge/status/1968747505656496525; https://x.com/VistaMaps/status/1968743733605662816

[lxx] https://x.com/VistaMaps/status/1970446637303763002; https://x.com/Mustafa_sdm1/status/1970469216450158689

[lxxi] https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/is-somalia-final-stand-egypt-ethiopia-rivalry-somalia-rsf-offensive-el-fasher-sudan-africa-file-august-28-2025#Sudan

[lxxii] Armed Conflict Location & Event Data (ACLED) database, https://acleddata.com/conflict-data/data-export-tool

[lxxiii] https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2025/sep/24/siege-sudan-city-el-fasher-rsf; https://x.com/YAS50IR/status/1969785713815126475; https://x.com/shukrisudani/status/1967272241558602038; https://x.com/shukrisudani/status/1970224138309521723; ACLED database, https://acleddata.com/conflict-data/data-export-tool

[lxxiv] https://x.com/sadiea8/status/1970455519237177826; https://x.com/BSonblast/status/1969620887608705280

[lxxv] https://sudantribune dot com/archives/305070

[lxxvi] https://x.com/SudanPlusNews/status/1968020557078859960; https://files-profile.medicine.yale.edu/documents/45e77af9-a3cb-4bae-9bc2-61efe1d1595f

[lxxvii] https://www.nytimes.com/2025/09/19/world/africa/sudan-strike-mosque-rsf.html?unlocked_article_code=1.nE8.krFL.cS-DLeMktr4B&smid=url-share; https://sudanwarmonitor.com/p/worshippers-massacred-in-rsf-drone; https://files-profile.medicine.yale.edu/documents/c1cfae6c-7c55-4bb6-8b81-2b224a97a8e4

[lxxviii] https://x.com/EastKordofan/status/1969755679503114610; https://suna-sd dot net/posts/astshhad-amyn-aaam-hkom-olay-shmal-darfor-ohrmh-athr-asthdaf-mnzlhma-bmsyr-astratygy-mn-almlyshya; https://www.darfur24 dot com/2025/09/21/——/

[lxxix] https://x.com/sudan_war/status/1970779006837629098; https://x.com/BSonblast/status/1970699827194536053; https://x.com/EastKordofan/status/1970580482997002598; https://x.com/kamalshref/status/1970826094497689824

[lxxx] https://sudantribune dot com/archives/305310

[lxxxi] https://news.un.org/en/story/2025/07/1165340

[lxxxii] https://www.unicef.org/sudan/press-releases/after-500-days-under-siege-children-sudans-al-fasher-face-starvation-mass

[lxxxiii] https://www.unicef.org/sudan/press-releases/after-500-days-under-siege-children-sudans-al-fasher-face-starvation-mass; https://x.com/SDN154/status/1939298531476427108

[lxxxiv] https://news.un.org/en/story/2025/07/1165340

[lxxxv] https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/rsfs-hemedti-sworn-head-parallel-sudanese-government-2025-08-30/

[lxxxvi] https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/sudanese-coalition-led-by-paramilitary-rsf-announces-parallel-government-2025-07-26/ ; https://www.darfur24 dot com/2025/09/08/——/

[lxxxvii] https://www.darfur24 dot com/2025/09/01/—–/; https://www.tagpress dot net/153546/——/; https://www.radiotamazuj dot org/en/news/article/south-sudan-denies-reports-of-ssp-circulating-in-darfur-kordofan

[lxxxviii] https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/crime_against_humanity

[lxxxix] https://www.lemonde dot fr/en/international/article/2025/07/11/icc-says-war-crimes-and-crimes-against-humanity-likely-committed-in-darfur_6743255_4.html

[xc] https://www.coalitionfortheicc.org/country/sudan

[xci] https://unric.org/en/international-law-understanding-justice-in-times-of-war

[xcii] https://www.un.org/en/genocideprevention/documents/ atrocity-crimes/Doc.1_Conventiononthe PreventionandPunishmentofthe CrimeofGenocide.pdf; https://www.un.org/en/genocide-prevention/definition; https://www.justice.gov/archives/jm/criminal-resource-manual-19-genocide-18-usc-1091

[xciii] https://www.hrw.org/report/2024/05/09/massalit-will-not-come-home/ethnic-cleansing-and-crimes-against-humanity-el

[xciv] https://www.hrw.org/report/2024/05/09/massalit-will-not-come-home/ethnic-cleansing-and-crimes-against-humanity-el

[xcv] https://2021-2025.state.gov/genocide-determination-in-sudan-and-imposing-accountability-measures/

[xcvi] https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/documents/hrbodies/hrcouncil/ffm-sudan/a-hrc-60-22-auv.pdf

[xcvii] https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2025/aug/07/genocide-sudan-zamzam-camp-timeline; https://www.msf.org/besieged-attacked-starved-mass-atrocities-el-fasher

[xcviii] https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2025/aug/07/genocide-sudan-zamzam-camp-timeline

[xcix] https://www.globalr2p.org/publications/urgent-alert-on-the-risk-of-genocide-in-north-darfur-sudan; https://news.un.org/en/story/2025/04/1162211; https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c511vgzvl2eo; https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cqv5nvq69lwo

[c] https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2024/05/09/darfur-rsf-fashir-geneina-hrw; https://www.hrw.org/report/2024/05/09/massalit-will-not-come-home/ethnic-cleansing-and-crimes-against-humanity-el

[ci] https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/is-somalia-final-stand-egypt-ethiopia-rivalry-somalia-rsf-offensive-el-fasher-sudan-africa-file-august-28-2025#Sudan; https://www.criticalthreats.org/analysis/russia-info-ops-sudan-attritional-battles-ISCAP-ADF-retaliate-DRC-JNIM-ISSP-infighting-Sahel-africa-file-july-17-2025#_edn273c09b481aea7165212d401610d3d6b348400a884dfa80b630fe23af3dc504652